The Indian economy is largely dependent on the agricultural sector, which accounts for 16% of the country’s GDP. Cultivation efforts over time have enabled us to attain a certain degree of food security, rural poverty rates have declined and agricultural incomes have increased. However, if not carefully monitored, this sector possesses the potential to extensively hinder India’s development.
Climate change is increasingly occupying a significant space in conversations worldwide, and justifiably so. Focussing on its impact on agriculture is important, but in order to effectively combat climate change, one must address the impact of agriculture on climate change as well. India is the second largest cultivator of rice globally, preceded by China. Unsurprisingly, along with being the most cultivated crop in India, it is also one of the most resource-intensive: 78% of India’s freshwater availability is utilized by the agricultural sector, and a kilogram of rice alone requires 2800 litres of water. In 2014-15, Indian farms consumed 10 trillion litres of water to produce 3.7 million tonnes of basmati rice for export, despite being a country where 1 billion people face conditions of water scarcity, and 60% face extreme water stress.
What’s interesting is that rice is not an intrinsically water-intensive crop. Aside from irrigation, water is extensively utilized for the intermittent flooding of paddy fields, a process undertaken to prevent weed growth. It concomitantly leads to the decomposition of the organic weed matter, thus releasing methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). CH4 and N2O emissions from rice farms could have the same, long term warming impact as about 600 coal plants. While there exist multiple avenues to mitigate the impact of rice cultivation on climate change and water consumption, this article focuses on a two-pronged solution oriented approach to address and minimize the water footprint of rice cultivation.
According to the Water and Productivity Mapping of Major Indian Crops report by NABARD and ICRIER, the current geographical displacement of rice cultivation in India is such that Punjab and Haryana are the main producers of rice - contributing to about 15% of India’s rice production. The topography of Punjab was not always suited for the cultivation of rice; what was once a desert has now become a rich base for rice cultivation due to subsidies for farmers, higher agricultural incomes, and Punjab’s free electricity policy. The last one is often exploited by farmers to pump groundwater through borewells for irrigation. In a 2017 OECD study on global water risk hotspots, India’s north-western region was identified as one of the top three in agricultural production. These regions run the risk of desertification in 25 years or less, if cropping patterns are not recalibrated suitably. Punjab and Haryana report the highest land productivity for rice (4 tonnes per hectare), owing to assured irrigation, and effective procurement policies for paddy - further encouraging farmers to cultivate this crop despite rising water sustainability issues (NABARD & ICRIER, 2018). The crop output per unit of irrigation water (IWP - Irrigation Water Productivity) used by the farmers for these states is relatively low at 0.22 kg/m3, despite almost 100% irrigation coverage. This is a clear indication of inefficient irrigation water use, potentially fuelling a groundwater crisis.
Suggestions have been made to shift rice cultivation eastward to states such as Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, to prevent this crisis. This is because rainfed Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, in contrast, display higher levels of IWP at 0.68 kg/m3 and 0.75 kg/m3, respectively, although they have substantially less irrigation coverage at 32% and 3%, respectively. Low land productivity here can be attributed to low irrigation levels, albeit the region being hydrologically suited for rice cultivation. These relatively water abundant eastern states of India lag behind in the production of rice potentially because they have been unable to set up suitable procurement structures for rice. Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are currently investing in measures like rainwater harvesting, desilting irrigation tanks, watershed planning, and setting up of farm ponds to replenish groundwater levels - all of which are labour-intensive.
In some ways, the COVID-19 crisis has paved certain conducive paths in favour of this shift. Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are currently facing a huge influx of person-power due to reverse migration, in need of employment for sustenance. While skill-mapping and allocation of opportunities to migrants are currently ongoing, the office of the Principal Scientific Advisor to the government stated that there is a need to rapidly engage the labourers as they shift to primary agricultural and rural livelihood settings. In addition, the government has stated that it will support migrant workers with effective technological and innovative solutions to help increase their efficiencies and farm yields. Utilizing this as an opportunity to recalibrate India’s rice cropping practices, and shift them eastward, can greatly mitigate the looming groundwater crisis in the north-western states. This could simultaneously drive economic growth in rural regions by giving farming opportunities to the surplus migrant labourers. Increased government expenditure through the MGNREGA scheme, good monsoons, and incentivized measures for the workers may further boost rural consumption-driven growth in these regions through agricultural practices. This could allow the north-western states to retain and increase their production of wheat, as their soil is hydrologically more suited for it, while diverting the production of rice. Farmers in the north-western region are aware of depleting groundwater levels and are willing to shift to more water-efficient crops, provided their market risk is covered through a state-assured procurement policy.
An impediment that arises in this potential shift is that a conducive environment for irrigation has not been created in the eastern states. Groundwater costs will be relatively higher in this region and farmers would need to depend on solar/biofuel/diesel to pump water, in addition to labour costs. While implementation of agricultural infrastructure is already ongoing in these regions, they will further require favourable policies and government intervention for effective implementation. The 2020 Budget has allotted Rs. 2.83 lakh crore for agriculture and irrigation for fiscal year 2021. Focus needs to be placed on the efficient allocation and utilization of these funds to attain maximum productivity.
As much as it is important to recalibrate rice cropping patterns, it also needs to be ensured that water is not being wasted. Reforming the age-old practice of intermittent flooding of rice fields is important to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Across rice farms in south India, researchers found that nitrous oxide emissions from rice can contribute up to 99% of the total climate impact of rice cultivation at a variety of intermittently flooded farms. This practice can be replaced by undertaking the shallow (mild-intermittent) flooding, while properly co-managing nitrogen and organic matter inputs. Practices such as dry cultivation of rice need further research and exploration to check feasibility of implementation.
Along with government support, there’s also a need for increasing awareness among farmers about sustainable agricultural practices. Improved fertilization practices can reduce methane emissions from rice cultivation by about 40%. Incentivisation of climate-smart practices, direct bank transfers, increased purchasing parity, infrastructure development, assured procurement, and eased access to improved fertilizer blends and seed varieties can greatly aid the agricultural sector’s progress. Moving forward with a business-as-usual approach will not sustain; there is a need to urgently introduce informed and reformed cropping practices, while providing the security and support farmers require.
Elizabeth Ann Thomas
